Perception Notes

�Social Cognition

�First Impressions (and Beyond)

�First impressions have enormous staying power.    They influence our judgments of others for a   long time.

�We don�t start from scratch.

Everybody we meet fits some

category of people about whom

we already hold stereotyped 

first impressions: 

They�re male or female, 

pretty or plain, young or old�

�Then, specific (and sometimes surprisingly subtle) information about a person is available with a close look.

�Then, primacy effects occur:

  The first information we obtain about others carries   special weight, influencing our interpretations of   the later information we encounter.

�First impressions also affect our choices of the new information we seek.

  A confirmation bias is typical:  We�re more likely to   pursue information that will confirm our beliefs   than to inquire after data that could prove them   wrong.

We too rarely confront convincing evidence that our first impressions are wrong.

�As a result, we tend to be overconfident:  

  We put too much faith in our judgments, and   think that we�re right about others more often   than we really are.

  We make more mistakes than we realize.

Over time, new partners become more certain that they understand the sexual histories of their new lovers very well � but they simply become more overconfident.

�Halo effect: When only exposed to a few positive qualities, then you�re likely to assume they have others of the same kind.  Rapid decision-making. 

�Physical attractiveness: deem someone who is good looking in a positive light.

�Horn effect: When only exposed to a few negative qualities, then you�re likely to assume they have many others. 

�If you dislike a quality about someone, you�ll have a negative predisposition toward other things about them. 

�Attributional Processes

  Attributions are our explanations of events.

  They identify the causes of events, emphasizing   the role of some influences and minimizing the   role of others.

  We can emphasize influences that are:

�Internal  to a person, such as personality or mood, or external, describing the situation the person faced.

�Stable and lasting, or 

  unstable and temporary.

�Controllable, so that we can manage them, or

  uncontrollable, so there�s nothing we can do about     them.

  The  actor/observer effect:  

    People generate different explanations for their   own actions than they do for the similar actions   they observe in others.

  As actors, we note external pressures, but as   observers, we make internal attributions.

  The actor/observer effect means that partners will often agree about what each of them did, but typically disagree about why each of them did it.

Even our closest partners seldom comprehend all of the reasons we recognize for why we behave as we do.

  Self-serving biases lead people to see themselves as responsible for the good things that happen to them, but as relatively blameless when things go wrong.

People routinely believe that relationship problems are mostly the other partner�s fault.

�Relationship Beliefs

  Romanticism  is the view that love should be the   most important basis for choosing a mate:

�Our love will be nearly perfect.

�There�s only one �true love� for me.

�True love will find a way to overcome any obstacle.

�Love is possible at first sight.

  Other beliefs are dysfunctional and disadvantageous:

�Disagreements are destructive.

��Mindreading� is essential.

�Partners cannot change.

�Sex should be perfect every time.

�Men and women are different.

�Great relationships just happen.

Some assumptions can be so idealistic and starry-eyed that no relationship can measure up to them, and disappointment and distress are certain to follow.  

We often get the reactions we expect from others.

  

  Self-fulfilling prophecies are false predictions that come true because they lead people to behave in   ways that make the erroneous expectations come true.

�Expectations

  When they expected to be liked by a stranger, 

    people were,

  And when they expected to be disliked, 

    they were�

  �even when the stranger knew nothing about them, 

  and the bogus expectations existed only in their own   minds.

        (Curtis & Miller, 1986)

�Self-Perceptions

  Our self-concepts encompass all the beliefs and feelings we have about ourselves.

�

The self-enhancement  motive leads us to seek feedback that makes us look good�

  �but the self-verification  motive leads us to seek   feedback that supports and verifies our existing self-  concepts.

�The Power of Perceptions

Self-enhancement is obvious in dating relationships, where everybody feels closer to partners who like and respect them.

�

But self-verification becomes more potent in more committed 

partnerships.

People with negative self-concepts actually feel closer to spouses who don�t approve of them than to those who do.

The manner in which self-verification becomes more obvious with greater interdependence and commitment is known as the marriage shift.

Most of us will be most content

with spouses who admire and respect us,

but people with negative self-concepts will not;

they feel better understood by, and closer to,

partners who verify their low opinions

of themselves.

�Impression Management

  Whether or not we�re thinking about it, we�re often engaging in impression management:trying to influence the impressions of us that

others form.

Almost anything we do in public may be strategically regulated to influence what others think of us.

�What we say

�What we wear

�How much we eat

�The pictures we post on Facebook

�Impression Management

�Strategies of Impression Management

�Ingratiation � doing favors, paying compliments, and being friendly and charming to elicit liking from others.

�

�Self-promotion � recounting accomplishments or displaying skills to elicit respect from others.

�

�Intimidation � appearing threatening or dangerous to elicit fear and compliance from others.

�

�Supplication � appearing inept or infirm to elicit help and nurturance from others.

�Aligning actions � attempts to define apparently questionable conduct as actually in line with cultural norms. Making excuses for your behavior.

�

�Exemplification � show dedication, commitment, or sacrifice. May try to arouse guilt.

�Impression Management in Close Relationships

  In addition�and remarkably�we usually go to less trouble to maintain favorable images for our intimate partners than we do for others.

�We already know they like us, so there�s less motivation to gain approval.

�They know us well, so there�s little we can do to affect what they think.

�And many of us simply get lazy and work less hard to be polite and charming.